Social Science Review

 

Prevalence and Predictors of Psychological Distress among Police Personnel in Bangladesh: A Cross-sectional Study   Masuma Parvin1.*,Abul Kalam2,and Nasrin Nahar1   1Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Gopalganj Science and Technology University, Gopalganj-8100, Bangladesh 2Department of Sociology, Bangladesh University.

Keywords		Abstract
Police personnel, psychological distress, predictors, mental health, Bangladesh		The police profession is renowned for its demanding and stressful work environments. Police personnel worldwide face unique stressors that can contribute to psychological distress. This cross sectional study explored the prevalence and predictors of psychological distress among police personnel in Bangladesh. A total of 267 police personnel were purposively selected from three divisions of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Chittagong, and Rajshahi. Data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire survey, incorporating the Bangla versions of the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6), Bergen Insomnia Scale, and Work Family Conflict Scale. Demographic and work-related information was gathered through a personal information questionnaire. To achieve the study objectives, independent sample t-tests, one-way ANOVA, correlation coefficients, and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. The findings revealed that 73% of the participants experienced severe psychological distress, highlighting the need for continuous mental health support for police personnel's physical and mental well-being. Significant positive correlations were found between working hours, insomnia, work-family conflict, and psychological distress. Multiple linear regression analysis confirmed that long working hours and insomnia significantly predicted psychological distress, explaining 14% of the total variance. An effective national and longitudinal research is required to validate these results, which indicate that work schedule management and proper sleep may be an effective way to reduce distress and support psychological health.

 

Introduction

Policing is a highly demanding profession that places significant psychological strain on its workforce. As one of the most vital institutions in society, the police are responsible for maintaining law and order, a duty that requires round-the-clock service (Islam et al., 2020). Police officers are regularly exposed to traumatic and stressful events such as shootings, crime scenes involving deceased individuals, road fatalities, child abuse or neglect, and drug-related crimes (Craddock & Telesco, 2022). Continuous exposure to trauma, violence, and crisis situations heightens the risk of psychological distress, which may severely affect both physical and mental health (Maran et al., 2015; Sheard et al., 2019). The inherent pressures of policing make stress a critical issue of concern, with psychological distress arising from multiple sources including work-related demands, poor sleep quality, and work-family conflict (Bellavia & Frone, 2005; Zhang et al., 2022).

In emergencies, police personnel often face excessive workloads, creating an imbalance between professional duties and family responsibilities (Islam et al., 2019). This imbalance, commonly referred to as work-family conflict (WFC), was defined by Netemeyer et al. (1996) as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities.” WFC is particularly prevalent among police due to long working hours and is considered one of the most significant predictors of psychological distress (Lee et al., 2017). Research indicates that police officers are more prone to WFC compared to other professions (Islam et al., 2020). Prolonged work hours and shift duties also compromise health and safety by disrupting sleep patterns, which further elevates stress levels. Previous studies have shown a clear link between extended work hours, poor sleep, and adverse mental health outcomes (Houdmont & Randall, 2016).

In addition to occupational stressors, several socio-demographic factors contribute to psychological distress among police personnel, including gender, marital status, educational attainment, and family structure. Psychological distress, increasingly recognized as a major issue in policing (Islam et al., 2019), is closely linked with workplace stressors and WFC (Ilies et al., 2007). Years of service and long working hours have also been found to significantly correlate with distress levels. Moreover, chronic sleep disturbances, such as insomnia, are common among police employees and are strongly associated with heightened workplace stress (Garbarino et al., 2019).

Addressing psychological distress is crucial for safeguarding the well-being of police personnel, who are entrusted with maintaining public safety and order. However, the issue remains understudied in the Bangladeshi context. To bridge this gap, the present study investigates the prevalence and severity of psychological distress among police personnel in Bangladesh by examining socio-demographic variables such as age, gender, education, marital status, and family structure, alongside work-related factors. The findings aim to guide policy interventions and support strategies to mitigate psychological distress and enhance the overall well-being of police officers.

 

Objectives of the Study

The broader objective of the study was to explore the prevalence and predictors of psychological distress among police employees in Bangladesh. Besides broader objective we have developed some specific objectives such as follows:

1. To assess psychological distress among the police employees in Bangladesh.
2. To explore whether working hour, insomnia, work-family conflict and psychological distress are associated with one another.
3. To explore whether working hour, insomnia, work-family conflict can predict psychological distress of police workers.

Methodology of the Study

The data were collected from 280 police personnel using a questionnaire-based survey method through convenience sampling. Participants were aged 22 to 60 years, predominantly male (81.6%) and female (18.4%).

Study Design and Participants

This cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the prevalence and predictors of psychological distress among police personnel in Bangladesh. A total of 267 police workers were purposively selected from three divisions of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Chittagong, and Rajshahi. Participants were selected based on their availability and willingness to participate in the study.

Sampling Technique

Purposive sampling was used to select the sample for this study. This non-probability sampling method was chosen to ensure the inclusion of police personnel who could provide relevant insights into the study objective.

Study Measurement
Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6)

The Bangla version of Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) adapted by Khan et al. (2019), which was originally developed by Kessler et al. (2002) has been used in this study. The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale is a screening tool to assess the level of distress associated with non-specific psychological symptoms of Bangla speaking people. It is a six item scale. A five-point rating scale was used as the response options, indicating 0 (none of the time); 1 (a little of the time); 2 (some of the time); 3 (most of the time); and 4 (all of the time). The total score of the scale ranges from 0 to 24. The severe and moderate psychological distress was determined based on the cut-points of K6 ≥ 13, and 5 ≤ K6 < 13, respectively (Prochaska et al., 2012). The Bangla K6 scale has good internal consistency with Cronbach alpha=0.87 and alpha=0.88. The intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) value for the scale was 0.80 which suggested accepted test-retest reliability.

Bergen Insomnia Scale (BIS)

Bergen Insomnia Scale is used for dealing with formal and clinical diagnostic criteria for insomnia. The Bangla version of Bergen Insomnia Scale adapted by Naher et al. (2019), which was originally developed by Pallesen et al. (2008) has been used in this study. It is a six-item scale to measure insomnia. Respondents need to express their experiences in the last month regarding various symptoms on an eight-point scale (0 indicates no days during the course of a week and 7 indicates every day during the course of a week). The Scale has good internal consistency (Cronbach alpha = 0.79) and test re-test reliability (r=0.74). The total score of the scale ranges from 0 to 42. The scale has Likert type 8 point response option. The higher score indicates chronic level of insomnia.

Work Family Conflict Scale (WFC)

The Bangla version of Work Family Conflict Scale adapted by Parvin, Naher and Nahar (2021), which was originally developed by Netemeyer et al. (1996) has been used in the present study. It is a five-item scale to measure Work Family Conflict. A five-point Likert scales ranging between 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree was used as the response options. The total score ranges from 5 to 25. The higher score indicates higher WFC.

The Personal Information Form (PIF)

The PIF elicited demographic, personal, and corona related information about respondent’s gender, age, working district, designation, working experience, education, family socioeconomic status, marital status, working hour, confirmed corona cases among relatives and friends, confirmed cases in the living community, levels of concern, Duty during the epidemic, affected or not etc.

Study Procedure

Standard data collection procedure was followed to collect the data from the respondents in the present study. For the present study the main purpose was to collect information about daily insomnia, work-family conflict and psychological distress among police workers. For this reason, sample was selected purposively from three divisions (Dhaka, Chattogram, and Rajshahi) of Bangladesh. At the beginning of data collection the respondents were briefly described about the general purpose of the study and requested to participate in the present research. The respondents were also informed that the investigation is purely academic and their responses to the questions would be kept confidential and would be used only for research purpose. Respondents who were co-operative and showed positive attitude towards the research, were administered the questionnaire. The respondents were instructed to read the items of the scales attentively and were asked to give tick () mark in the appropriate box. They were also requested not to omit any item in the questionnaire. The scale was administered to each respondent’s individually one after another. Respondents spontaneously marked their favorable opinion. Required assistance was provided to the respondents to understand the items of the questionnaire. There was no time limit for the respondents to answer the items in the scale. At the end, all the participants are given a token gift for their active participation.

Analysis of the Study

The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) version 26. Independent-sample t-test and ANOVA were used to analyze whether there are differences in psychological distress between different groups. The correlation and regression analysis were employed to find out the association and figure out the predictors that influence police officers’ psychological distress.

Result

A total of 280 people responded to the present study, while 267 participants were included in this study. Some respondents did not report the demographic information and not responded to all questions, therefore, the total number of responses for each variable did not sum up to the total number of 267.

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Table 1 presents the descriptive characteristics of the participants. The average age was 39.26 years for all participants, 18% of participants were below 30 years old, and 30% were above 44 years old. Of the participants, 81.6% were male, and 75.3% were married, while 77.5% were from nuclear family background, 50.9% had higher secondary educational background, 33.7% had honors/master’s degree and 15.4% had completed secondary level education. In terms of designation, most of the participants were constable which was 74.2%. Here participant’s years of service shows that, 58.8% of participants had above 14 years of working experience in police profession, and only 5.2% of participants had below 5 years of experience. In terms of daily working hour, 87.3% police personnel work more than 8 hours in a day.

 

Differences in Psychological Distress among Groups

Table 2 illustrates the results of comparing psychological distress scores based on the police employee’s demographic and work-related variables. Significant differences were observed in the mean scores for psychological distress among different education groups, designation, work experience groups and daily working hours. Police employees with secondary education are showing a higher mean level of psychological distress than those with higher level of education (p < 0.05). Additionally, participants who are working as constable, whose years of service is higher than 14 years and who work more than 8 hours in a day displayed a higher mean level of psychological distress than others (p < 0.01).

 

In order to test the second objectives, Pearson product moment correlation was calculated. Results from bivariate correlation analysis presented in Table 3, shows that working hour is significantly and positively correlated with insomnia (r=.26, p<.01), work-family conflict (r=.18, p<.01), and psychological distress (r=.29, p<.01). That means, long working hour creates more sleeping problem, work-family conflict and psychological distress among police workers or vice versa. Results also showed that insomnia has significant positive correlation with work-family conflict (r=.32, p<.01) and psychological distress (r=.31, p<.01). Work-family conflict and psychological distress are also significantly correlated with each other (r=.19, p<.01). That means, Work-family conflict creates more psychological distress among police workers daily life

 

Differences in Psychological Distress among Groups

Collinearity exists when variables overlap invariance, such as a correlation between two variables is higher than 0.70, which could affect regression results. The results in Table 3, showed that the highest correlation is 0.32, and the results in Table 4 showed that the highest tolerance score is .921. Collinearity is not a concern in this study. Multiple regression analysis was done by using daily working hour, insomnia and work-family conflict as criterion variable and psychological distress as outcome variable. The results indicate that daily working hour and insomnia had significant positive effects on psychological distress (B =.218, p < 0.001; B=.233, p < 0.001), indicating that police workers with long working hour and insomnia generally have more psychological distress. Adjusted R2 value suggested that the model is significant and can explain 14% of the total variance.

 

Discussions

This study explored the prevalence of psychological distress among police personnel. It also examined how police employee’s distress level varies depending on their demographic and work related related variable characteristics. This study revealed interesting findings based on a data set (N = 267) of police employees in Bangladesh. The study was designed to achieve several objectives. The first objective was to assess the prevalence of psychological distress among the police workers. Result of the study reveals that 73% police workers suffering severe psychological distress and 27% are suffering moderate level of psychological distress. Overall, the findings of the present study indicate significant differences in the severity of psychological distress among different educational level, working position groups, years of service and daily working hours. The participants whose educational background was secondary, working as a constable and working experience were more than fourteen years perceived severe psychological distress. On the other hand, Psychological distress was moderate among participants with high educational background, working as a sub-inspector and the working experience is less than five years. These outcomes supported the findings of previous research. Representative population-based research carried out in Finland, Poland, and Spain has also revealed a substantial correlation between clinical depression and low education (Selokar et al., 2011). On the contrary study done by Molarius and Granström, (2018) reported no association between education and distress. In a different study by Sundaram et al. (2012), 33% and 42% of the participants reported high and extremely high levels of psychological distress, respectively, among female constables in Tamil Nadu. In the present study most of the participants (87.3%) were working more than eight hours daily which is consistent with the previous research where 82.4% participants were found who work more than eight hours in a day (Selokar et al., 2011). Significant difference was also found in psychological distress perception between police personnel who works longer period of time and who do not. Results also revealed that different age groups, gender, marital status, family structure of the police workers do not differ in terms of psychological distress.

Insomnia emerged as another significant predictor of psychological distress in this study. The relationship between sleep disturbances and psychological health is well-documented, with poor sleep quality often leading to heightened stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The predictive role of insomnia on psychological distress observed in this study highlights the need for interventions focused on improving sleep hygiene and addressing sleep disorders among police personnel. The second objective of the study was to explore whether working hour, insomnia, work-family conflict and psychological distress associated with one another. Results reveal that daily working hour, insomnia, work-family conflict and psychological distress significantly and positively associated with each other. Previous research supported the present findings of the present study. For example, Police workers who work longer hours feel greater psychological distress (Huang et al. 2021). Poor sleep quality and work-family conflicts are more significantly associated with psychological distress (Rezaei et al., 2018; Ugwu, 2017). Baghban et al. (2010) found that work family conflict creates psychological and emotional distress.

The third objective was to explore whether working hour, insomnia, work-family conflict can predict psychological distress of police workers. Results of the analysis reveal that daily working hours, and insomnia can significantly predict psychological distress of police personnel. These findings are also consistent with previous research. For example, Rezaei et al. (2018) found that insomnia increases the risk of developing psychological distress. Inadequate sleep or insomnia is linked to poor health, lower wellbeing, and declines in productivity, safety, and performance at work. It was also found working long hours appears to be a risk factor for the development of shortened sleeping hours, insomnia and stress (Liu et al., 2021; Virtanen et al., 2009). Whereas work-family conflict has no significant predictive role was found in the present study which is contradictory to the previous research that reveals work-family conflict as a strong predictor for psychological distress (Huang et al., 2021). Small sample size and the adaptive capacity of the Bangladeshi family member can be the cause this contradictory result.

 

Limitations of the Study

The study had some limitations which may affect the applicability of the findings in other situations like the study was undertaken on small sample and selected based on purposive sampling technique. Due to the cross-sectional nature of the data used in the study, judgments regarding the direction of the observed connections are not possible. Studies on a large sample are needed in future to explore more specifically about the predictors of psychological distress among police personnel. Regular stress management instruction might help to increase coping mechanisms. Resources must be focused on investigating practical solutions to change how the task is organized and enhance the management environment.

 

Conclusion

Significant insights into the frequency and factors that predict psychological discomfort among Bangladeshi police personnel are provided by this study. Results show that a large percentage of police officers experience significant psychological discomfort; in fact, 73% of participating officers fell into this category. Because of this, there is an immediate need for police departments to implement extensive mental health support programs to help officers cope with emotional instability. This study found that sleeplessness and lengthy work hours were major determinants of psychological distress, accounting for fourteen percent of the variation in distress levels. According to these findings, police officers' mental health is greatly affected by their work schedules and the amount of sleep they get. Due to the strong positive associations between working hours, insomnia, work-family conflict, and psychological discomfort, it is reasonable to assume that lowering work-family conflict and better managing workload could help alleviate psychological distress.

Police employment is extremely stressful, therefore it's critical to help cops deal with their mental health. Policies that optimize work hours, improve sleep hygiene, and provide mental health resources could effectively reduce psychological suffering. In addition, it is critical to facilitate a nurturing workplace that recognizes and handles the specific challenges encountered by law enforcement officers. To verify these results and investigate other variables leading to psychological discomfort in this group, additional research is required, especially longitudinal investigations. Insights from this type of study could lead to more effective community safety measures and interventions for police officers by improving their mental health.

 

References

1. Ahmad, R., & Islam, T. (2019). Does work and family imbalance impact the satisfaction of police force employees? A “net or a web” model. Policing: An International Journal, 42(4), 585–597.
2. Ahorsu, D. K., Lin, C.-Y., Imani, V., Saffari, M., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2020). The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. Epub ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8
3. Baghban, I., Malekiha, M., & Fatehizadeh, M. (2010). The relationship between work-family conflict and the level of self-efficacy in female nurses in Alzahra Hospital. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 15(4), 190.
4. Bellavia, G. M., & Frone, M. K. (2005). Work-family conflict. Handbook of work stress, 113-148.
5. Craddock, T. B., & Telesco, G. (2022). Police stress and deleterious outcomes: Efforts towards improving police mental health. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 37(1), 173-182.
6. Garbarino, S., Guglielmi, O., Puntoni, M., Bragazzi, N. L., & Magnavita, N. (2019). Sleep quality among police officers: implications and insights from a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 885.
7. Houdmont, J., & Randall, R. (2016). Working hours and common mental disorders in English police officers. Occupational Medicine, 66(9), 713-718.
8. Huang, Q., Bodla, A. A., & Chen, C. (2021). An Exploratory Study of Police Officers’ Perceptions of Health Risk, Work Stress, and Psychological Distress During the COVID-19 Outbreak in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 632970.
9. Ilies, R., Schwind, K. M., Wagner, D. T., Johnson, M. D., DeRue, D. S., & Ilgen, D. R. (2007). When can employees have a family life? The effects of daily workload and affect on work-family conflict and social behaviors at home. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1368–1379.
10. Islam, T., Ahmad, R., Ahmed, I., & Ahmer, Z. (2019). Police work-family nexus, work engagement and turnover intention: Moderating role of person-job-fit. Policing: An International Journal, 42(5), 739–750.
11. Islam, T., Khan, M. M., Ahmed, I., Usman, A., & Ali, M. (2020). Work-family conflict and job dissatisfaction among police officers: Mediation of threat to family role and moderation of role segmentation enhancement. Policing: An International Journal, 43(2), 403–415.
12. Kessler, R. C., Barker, P. R., Colpe, L. J., Epstein, J. F., Gfroerer, J. C., Hiripi, E., ... & Zaslavsky, A. M. (2003). Screening for serious mental illness in the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(2), 184-189.
13. Khan, A., Uddin, R., Alam, N., Sultana, S., Alam, M. U., & Ahmed, R. (2019). Psychometric properties of the Bangla version of the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6). Global Psychiatry, 2(2), 183-193.
14. Lee, K., Suh, C., Kim, J. E., & Park, J. O. (2017). The impact of long working hours on psychosocial stress response among white-collar workers. Industrial Health, 55(1), 46-53.
15. Liu, X., Wang, C., Wang, J., Ji, Y., & Li, S. (2021). Effect of long working hours and insomnia on depressive symptoms among employees of Chinese internet companies. BMC Public Health, 21(1), 1-10.
16. Mansour, S., & Tremblay, D.-G. (2016). Workload, generic and work–family specific social supports and job stress: Mediating role of work–family and family–work conflict. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(8), 1778–1804.
17. Maran, D. A., Varetto, A., Zedda, M., & Ieraci, V. (2015). Occupational stress, anxiety and coping strategies in police officers. Occupational Medicine, 65(6), 466-473.
18. Molarius, A., & Granström, F. (2018). Educational differences in psychological distress? Results from a population-based sample of men and women in Sweden in 2012. BMJ Open, 8(4), e021007.
19. Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work-family conflict and family-work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 400–410.
20. Pallesen, S., Bjorvatn, B., Nordhus, I. H., Sivertsen, B., Hjørnevik, M. A. R. I., & Morin, C. M. (2008). A new scale for measuring insomnia: the Bergen Insomnia Scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 107(3), 691-706.
21. Parvin, M., Naher, L., & Nahar, N. (2021). Bangla translation of the Work Family Conflict (WFC) Scale, Gopalganj, Bangladesh: Department of Psychology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science & Technology University.
22. Prochaska, J. J., Sung, H. Y., Max, W., Shi, Y., & Ong, M. (2012). Validity study of the K6 scale as a measure of moderate mental distress based on mental health treatment need and utilization. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21(2), 88-97.
23. Rezaei, M., Khormali, M., Akbarpour, S., Sadeghniiat-Hagighi, K., & Shamsipour, M. (2018). Sleep quality and its association with psychological distress and sleep hygiene: a cross-sectional study among pre-clinical medical students. Sleep Science, 11(4), 274.
24. Sakib, N., Bhuiyan, A. K. M., Hossain, S., Al Mamun, F., Hosen, I., Abdullah, A. H., ... & Mamun, M. A. (2020). Psychometric validation of the Bangla Fear of COVID-19 Scale: Confirmatory factor analysis and Rasch analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-12.
25. Selokar, D., Nimbarte, S., Ahana, S., Gaidhane, A., & Wagh, V. (2011). Occupational stress among police personnel of Wardha city, India. The Australasian Medical Journal, 4(3), 114.
26. Sheard, I., Burnett, M. E., & St Clair-Thompson, H. (2019). Psychological distress constructs in police with different roles. International Journal of Emergency Services, 8(3), 264-279.
27. Tian, F., Li, H., Tian, S., Yang, J., Shao, J., & Tian, C. (2020). Psychological symptoms of ordinary Chinese citizens based on SCL-90 during the level I emergency response to COVID-19 public health emergency of international concern. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112992
28. Ugwu, C. J. (2017). Relationship of work-family conflict, family-work conflict and psychological distress among female bank employees in Port Harcourt Metropolis, Rivers State, Nigeria. European Journal of Psychological Research, 4(1).
29. Virtanen, M., Ferrie, J. E., Gimeno, D., Vahtera, J., Elovainio, M., Singh-Manoux, A., ... & Kivimäki, M. (2009). Long working hours and sleep disturbances: the Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Sleep, 32(6), 737-745.
30. Zhang, C., Xiao, S., Lin, H., Shi, L., Zheng, X., Xue, Y., ... & Xue, B. (2022). The association between sleep quality and psychological distress among older Chinese adults: a moderated mediation model. BMC Geriatrics, 22, 1-10.