Social Science Review

 

The influences of tertiary education in women empowerment in Bangladesh: An overview   Shamima Akhter[*]   Associate Professor, Department of Public Administration, Jagannath University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

 

Keywords		Abstract
Higher Education, Women Empowerment, Women rights, Gender parity, Equality		In any country or society higher education is acknowledged as an instrument for social change. Generally, there are three-layer mainstream educational levels in Bangladesh such as; primary, secondary, and tertiary where female education comprehends all levels of education. The prime objective of this study is to reveal the participation of female students in tertiary education which includes honors and masters level. It is the highest academic and institutional layer of conventional education where female pupils can shape them to be empowered. Although women are increasingly completing higher education, it remains crucial to women's empowerment in the country. So that it assesses how post-secondary education impact women's empowerment to harmonize against the patriarchal society like in Bangladesh. It will also highlight some barriers which hinder emancipation of women to access to policy level, leadership roles, adequate research and study opportunities, IT competency, financial solvency, sociocultural recognition, participation in relevant extracurricular activities, and so on. Finally, this study will discuss government initiatives and suggest some recommendations to overcome women’s position to succeed in advancing gender equality.

 

Introduction

Education is a convention system through which society consciously passes its accumulated skills, learning, knowledge, values and norms from one generation to the next. The social and economic facets of female education include elements that can support women empowerment. Educated women are pivotal part of the society who shape the family as a whole. Several empirical studies have demonstrated the correlation between higher education and women empowerment where education contributes predominant position in achieving gender parity and women empowerment (Nashid, K., & Haider, S., 2007; Zafar, 2016). Higher studies can shape women’s life to ensure better health care, improve food production and aware about malnutrition, reduce population growth, solvent them financially and enhance poverty reduction (Kuenning, M. & Amin, 2001; Coleman, 2010), their empowerment also accelerate the economic growth of the country (Duflo,2012). ICPD Program of Action implies that education is the best mechanism to fulfill the required knowledge and skill for women to improve their confidence for participating in the development process. Since the independence of the nation in 1971, Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has implemented numerous policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at empowering women. In certain disciplines, there have also been some observable advancements, but expectations have not yet been met. Although half of all human resources are women, it is regrettable to state that for a very long time, there has been a strong bias against women. 

 

In Bangladesh, where gender inequality still exists and women are frequently confined to the home, responsible for household duties, and unable to engage in economic activity, women's empowerment is a critical issue. Nevertheless, despite recent advancements, women in Bangladesh still encounter significant barriers to obtaining higher education. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) at present the percentage of male and female students who took secondary and higher secondary exams in the previous five years is almost equal. However, only 36.30% of university students are female (Dhaka Tribune, 2023). Bangladesh's adult literacy rate is 55%, with males making up 60% and females 49% respectively (Mahtab, 2012). Women have been considered in many respects historically as being below males in terms of equality. Voting, land ownership, and many types of employment were not open to women. Strong devotion to culture and tradition is to blame for this condition. Such patience is shown by the women for the welfare of their children and community because of the limitation of self-assurance to live alone and confront the difficulties of life. Women should wake up from deep slumber and realize the inequality prevailing in the society to step forward into their empowerment. 

 

Bangladesh is a country where women have traditionally been marginalized and underrepresented in various aspects of life. However, the importance of women’s empowerment has been predominantly acknowledged in the recent years in achieving sustainable development. Higher education is the prime component that can strengthen empowerment of women by acquiring necessary knowledge, skills and confidence to participate in various spheres of life. Numerous studies have shown that women's financial difficulties, limited voices in decision-making, inherited domestic violence, inadequate purchasing capability of their daily essentials, superstitious beliefs etc., have worsen their social status in different ways. As a result, these impoverished women hardly have any say to decide most significant events of their lives such as; marriage, childbirth and even in raising their children. It follows that the primary reasons for the backwardness of women encompasses limited decision-making power in family level, domestic violence and reliance on men, socioeconomic condition of women, patriarchy and most significantly, it occurred as a result of inadequate education. This whole background will attempt to outline the existing higher education scenario of women in Bangladesh. 

 

 

Literature Review:

There are pervasive literature on the advancement of female education in higher level and their empowerment. The core findings of the studies relevant with higher education in women empowerment are pointed out below.

Ahmed et al. (2020) examined how higher education might enhance the existing status and empowerment of women. The study concluded that female graduates adhere to conventional gender functions at the price of increasing their financial freedom because of the largely patriarchal nature of current societal norms, home decisions, legal and regulatory frameworks. It was noticed that higher education enhanced integral empowerment of women by expanding agency, self-efficacy, and decision-making capacities of the students who are rendering self-income. Students can acquire the skills to overcome the sociocultural obstacles faced by educated women in Bangladesh by achieving both instrumental and intrinsic empowerment (Ahmed, & Hyndman-Rizk, 2020). This study draws the conclusion that, irrespective of the quality, women are still required skilled based higher education to sustain in labor market and avail economic opportunities in Bangladesh.

Md. Shafiul Islam, (2012) and Hossain, & Tisdell, (2005) explored that education is a significant aspect influencing the ability of women to make decisions and there are glaring gender gap at all educational levels. Women are anticipated to have huge potential to possess political power and decision-making capacity at all levels of the state, institution, and household as their educational level rises. Educating women can upgrade the families, country, and the world from unprivileged conditions. (Murtaza, K.F., 2012). Their findings are significant because it demonstrates how self-reliance of women advance their family, particularly help their kids. Salahuddin et al. (2014) investigated that female participation in tertiary education is at one-third. From the beginning of the last decade to the present, female education has gradually improved at all levels. According to the study's key finding, more than half of Bangladeshi students in primary, secondary, and madrasha education are female. In addition, majority of the primary school teachers are female. Noreen et al. (2012) revealed that gender mainstreaming is essential to achieve gender parity in traditional societies. They learn the abilities to manage their homes and children better. Higher education increases their mobility, lessens their dependency, and builds their confidence and self-esteem. Confirmatory evidence is provided by the research, which shows that education contributes immense role to women's lives and the tenure of education directly affects participant’s ability to advance in their careers. The opinions and perspectives of the participants on the subject of women's domestic duties varied. Knowledge, self-confidence, and gender equity awareness growth are signs of the empowerment process. Sharma et al. (2014) explored the value of higher education for Indian women. The best approach is for women to be thoroughly educated so that they are aware of their obligations and rights. However, it is equally essential that the various programs the Indian government has created for the empowerment of women be properly implemented. Malik et al. (2011) found that higher education significantly rises the awareness of women to their legitimate rights, in particular; divorce and inheritance. It was shown that a higher level of schooling and women's economic status was associated with higher levels of confidence and the ability to speak up for themselves in their families and the larger community. Hossain et al. (2005) examined data indicating increasing commercialization of women's labor, advancements in women's educational attainment, and a decline in gender wage disparities, all of which point to better conditions for women in Bangladesh. 

Lavanya & Ahmed, (2018) observed that the potentiality of women to involve in worthwhile pursuits will grant them some degree of financial independence and achieving this quality at early stage is challenging. Since the effective involvement of women is indispensable at each phase of change, higher education is thought to be essential for the cultural, social, and economic acceleration of any nation. This study evaluates the factors affecting higher education of women that may help women to learn more effectively. 

Yadav et al., (2011) explored that education can be a game changer in the fight for women's liberation, in gaining ability to challenge traditional roles, and transform their lives. Since education eliminates inequality and allows female students to elevate their status within their families, it is the most important strategy for changing position of women in their society. However, the majority of women had little access to education. They have also observed that employment and education together improve the involvement of women in various household and financial decisions while reducing the incidence of domestic violence. The position of women in terms of empowerment was positively impacted by education and employment. Their empowerment will result from improved education, employment opportunities, and a change in society's general attitude toward women.

Kulal et al.(2023) found that tertiary education has an evident impact on the total empowerment of women. It has also showed that women’s experience on their empowerment and demographic issues are independent with the exception of monthly income. According to the study, higher education helps women in a number of ways, so it is advised that the responsible policy makers develop the necessary measures to guarantee that every woman in the nation has access to high-quality higher education. A paradigm shift from a male dominated to a gender balanced society can only advance the balanced and comprehensive development of the country. The above authors have discussed about the necessity of women participation in education and the influences of female students to the society, especially in their family (Goel, 2004).

Women's voices are ignored and unheard almost entirely from the very beginning of modern civilization. They consequently became one of society's most vulnerable groups. But in the 20th century, barriers for women began to fall as a result of the effects of globalization. Female education will drive a developed and educated society; hence the topic has been chosen. Therefore, it analyses the involvement of female in various organizations, professions, career choices, and decision-making abilities demonstrates a favorable impact on their sense of empowerment. 

 

Objective of the study

The primary objective of this study is to explore the present status women and their involvement in tertiary education in Bangladesh. It will also identify the factors that contribute to empower women both intrinsically and instrumentally. Finally, it will portray the government initiatives regarding secure higher education for women to reduces inequality from the society.

 

Research questions

To find out these objectives, this study has some research questions. First of all, what is the influence of the socioeconomic background of female students to achieve higher education? and how does educational attainment in highest level promote the female student’s decision-making capability in their family as well as in the society ? 

 

Methodology

The content analysis method and empirical evidence are applied for evaluating in this study where secondary sources of data were gathered from a variety of sources, including books, e-books, journals, articles, reports from various organizations, research papers, and daily newspapers, and so on. All the information collected from the secondary sources were critically analyzed, compared and reviewed to obtain the objectives of this study.

 

Higher education and women empowerment in Bangladesh

 In the 19th century, the influence of missionary companies and British nationals are residing in Bangladesh significantly impacted female education. The colonial government and educated individuals in urban areas played a crucial role in advocating for women's education. During this period, institutional education for women was largely confined to domestic settings. According to Begum Rokeya's writings, female students were often restricted to religious education rather than formal academic learning (Akhter, 2001). Over the time, in Bangladesh, National Education Policy 2010 formulated and also implemented (Ministry of Education, 2010). The education system of Bangladesh is diverse in nature and comprised of multiple curriculum. Higher education is a collection of systematic knowledge and practical skills that enables pupils to solve theoretical and practical problems utilizing contemporary advancement in science, technology, and culture. Higher education in Bangladesh starts after completing a total of 12 years of primary and secondary education. Different universities confer bachelor’s degrees in various disciplines and the Ministry of Education (MOE) and University Grant Commission (UGC) supervise the whole management of tertiary education. In this study, higher education implies university degrees that include undergraduate and graduate levels. 

Women empowerment is a combined influence of social, political, economic and legal elements and a major contributor of development of any country. It has a normative goal integrated in a system which allows women access to both material and intangible resources and control over them. Women empowerment implies gaining ability to impose opinions in decision making process which gives women chances to involved in various fruitful activities. This would make women emancipated and transform their life by their own choices (Kabeer, 1999; Swain, 2007; Krishna, 2003). Women empowerment entails having some degree of autonomy or independence. It also implies having some sense of control over one's life and the capacity to make and carry out decisions. It varies from person to person and from circumstance to circumstance. If one believes that empowerment is a personal quality, then it follows that an empowered person will have certain characteristics, such as financial stability and education. However, it is extremely challenging to define women empowerment in terms of particular situational characteristics. Empowerment frees a woman from coerced pregnancy, religious dogma, polygamy, rape, child marriage, and unequal marriage (Tapash, 2002). The institutional and formal education provided by higher education helps female students become independent and powerful. The following theoretical frameworks can help to understand the outcome of higher education achieving women empowerment.

 

Human capital theory

This theory argues that investments in education increase human capital, which can increase output and income. According to this hypothesis, a higher education can help women become economically independent by increasing their earning capacity. According to the social capital hypothesis, education can assist individuals in creating social networks and connections that can be used to gain access to opportunities and resources. Higher education can assist women in developing connections with mentors and other powerful individuals, which can be beneficial in both their professional and personal life. The term "human capital" was made well-known by Gary Becker, a University of Chicago economist, and Jacob Mincer. It refers to the collection of skills, habits, and personality traits, including skills like creativity, that are embodied in the capacity to perform work in order to generate the crucially important economic value. The phrase "The theory of Investment in Man" is another name for it. The theory dates back to Schultz (1960), who argued that education should be seen as an investment in productivity rather than just as a means of consumption. According to Schulz, education not only increases men's freedom of choice but also creates the kind of educated workforce required for economic growth and industrial development.

 

The feminist theory

The feminist theory argues that education can support efforts to dispel gender norms and advance gender equality. According to this view, a higher education can support women's advocacy efforts and help them develop a critical knowledge of gender relations.

 

Liberal feminist view on education

Individual autonomy, also known as personal autonomy, is at the core of liberal feminism. Liberal feminists are primarily concerned with gender equality and think that this can be achieved by changing the law and legislation in a way that maximizes personal autonomy. They are worried about overt sexism and the legal defense of girls and women in the classroom. Liberal feminists emphasize how far the educational system has come. Girls have made educational strides despite the persistence of patriarchy. Since many of the obstacles that women and girls faced in the past have been eliminated, education is now useful to and advantageous to girls.

 

Radical feminist view on education

Radical feminists contend that schools are patriarchal institutions of society. They think that education's function is to normalize the oppression of women and girls and to reinforce patriarchal ideology. Radical feminists contend that because they are taught to work a triple burden shift, men and boys are predisposed to mistreat and oppress women and girls. Radical feminists think there needs to be a significant overhaul of the educational system. They contend that gender stereotyping persists in education despite the legal changes supported by liberal feminists.

 

Marxist and socialist feminist views of education

Feminists who are Marxist and Socialist contend that women and girls were the first oppressed group. They reject the notion that "woman" is a natural category and that the oppression of women is an inevitable result of biology and evolution. The education system is largely criticized by Marxists and socialist feminists. They contend that formal education socializes girls to accept their roles as sisters, wives, and mothers in nuclear families. Women and girls are oppressed economically and culturally because capitalism is both an economic and cultural system. Education serves to spread the social norms, values, and practices that support the oppression of women and girls in capitalism. Girls are taught to internalize biologically deterministic ideas of gender, which place them below men, through the hidden and formal curriculum. The idea that our behavior and traits are determined by our genetic makeup is known as biological. Marxist and socialist feminist critiques have significantly influenced education theory and practice. Their insights have led to: a) increased focus on social justice and gender equality in curriculum development. b) development of critical pedagogy approaches that promote critical thinking and empower students. c) greater awareness of the hidden curriculum and its impact on students. d) efforts to address inequalities in access to quality education. Marxist and socialist feminist views of education offer valuable insights into the complex attachment between education, power and gender. While they recognize the limitations of education within a capitalist system, they also acknowledge its potential for promoting critical consciousness, empowering women and contributing to social change. Their perspectives continue to challenge and inform educational practices, encouraging educators to work together for creating a more equitable society for all.

 

Present status of female education in Bangladesh at tertiary level

Education is an essential tool for development and removing all kind of ignorance and exploitation from the society. It is the enlightened process of empowerment to improve the lives of girls and women. The enrollment of female students is increased in every level of our education system. Some statistics are given in below to present higher education scenario in Bangladesh:

 

The enrollment of women in the education system is not limited only in the primary or secondary level. Moreover, they have ensured their entrance in the higher-level of education. Now a day, there are many public and private universities in Bangladesh where they secure their desired positions remarkably. Recently, the rate of female student’s enrollment in higher education gradually increased and they have completed their study successfully. However, in some cases the continuous growth of female education and literacy rate could not safeguard the enrollment in higher education as they are not willing to continue it due to various socioeconomic barriers. (Salahuddin et al., 2014). The below tables are obtained from statistical reports of Bangladesh Education Statistics (BES,2022) and Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS, 2023) which depicts the present enrollment status of female students.

 

Table 1: Present enrollment status of female students in Bangladesh

Source: Bangladesh Education Statistics, 2022 

 

Another data of Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) shows the gross enrolment ratio of gender who are entering into tertiary level of education.

 

Table 2: Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) by Gender in Tertiary Level Education, 2015-2023

Year	Tertiary Education
	Both	Boys	Girls
2015	15.03	17.83	12.11
2016	15.67	19.02	12.32
2017	15.84	19.13	12.87
2018	16.88	19.59	14.06
2019	19.01	21.73	16.18
2020	20.07	22.11	17.94
2021	20.19	22.14	18.2
2022	18.66	20.07	17.19
2023	20.18	24.78	16.51

Source: Data collected from BANBEIS, 2023

 

The percentage of female enrollment in different level of education in different years (1017-2023) are listed in the following table. It shows that Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary, Tertiary (Degree Level), Tertiary (Master Level), and Tertiary (Post Graduate Level) girls students enrollment increased exponentially by 26.66%, 45.93%, 42.45%, and 30.78% respectively over the time. 

 

Table: 3 Percentages of Girl Student by Level 2017-2023

Level of Education	2017	2018	2019	2020	2021	2022	2023
Post-Secondary Non-Tertiary	17.56	17.71	17.97	18.23	19.05	18.97	26.66
Tertiary (Degree Level)	42.0	41.39	43.23	43.8	45.06	45.7	45.93
Tertiary (Master Level)	36.35	36.07	36.7	40.78	39.18	39.0	42.45
Tertiary (Post Graduate Level)	-	-	39.16	37.77	30.08	29.91	30.78
Tertiary [Others (Certificate/ Diploma)]	-	-	-	50.65	27.53	40.74	39.83
Tertiary (Degree+ Masters+ Post Graduate+ Others)	-	40.84	42.38	43.85	45.03	45.57

Source: Data collected from BANBEIS, 2023

 

This table shows that the culture of female education is rapidly increasing. The increase of the female education ensures not only their social status but also securing their human and basic rights within the society. It empowers women in their own area and they can make their own decision too. 

 

Table 4: Percentage of male and female students attending in Public universities 

Students	Number of students	Percentage (%)
Male	215090	69.36
Female	95017	30.64
Total	310107	100

Source: UGC report, 2021 

 

The following table describe the number of universities, teachers, and students by the type of gender. This table indicates the significantly growth of female student’s enrollment and teaching service engagement which clearly demonstrate the improvement of female empowerment in higher education. 

 

Table 5: Number of University, Teacher and Students by Type & Gender, 2023

Type of University	No. of University	Number of Teacher			Number of Student			Indicator
		Total	Female	% of Female	Total	Girl	% of Girl	TSR	SPI	TPI
Private	114	16245	5072	31.22	339305	100841	29.72	21	2976	143
Public	55	16399	4469	27.25	725971	297840	41.03	44	13199	298

Source: Data collected from BANBEIS, 2023

 

Tertiary education impacts on women empowerment in Bangladesh

People’s Republic of Bangladesh’s has unicameral parliamentary system which consists of 300 directly elected members from each territorial constituencies for a five-years term. In addition, there are 50 reserve seats for women who are appointed by the elected members of the parliament (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2017). In the present parliament (Twelfth), there are 19 directly elected women MPs along with 50 reserved seats MPs (The Prothom Alo, 2024). In the present cabinet, there are eight women ministers including honorable prime minister that is the highest percentage (18.1%) of the history of Bangladesh (pmo.gov.bd, 2024). It is evident that in Bangladesh, political participation of women consistently increasing over the time. 

 

There are a significant number of highly educated women engaged in income generation in Bangladesh. Income-generating activities have empowered many women economically. This involvement is crucial for both individual economic empowerment and broader economic growth in the country. According to the report of UN Women's Gender Equality Brief 2024, about 38% highly educated women are involved in the labor force, contributing to various sectors such as education, healthcare, and finance (UNWGEB, 2024).

 

Statistics on the involvement of highly educated women in social activities in Bangladesh reveal a growing trend, driven by improvements in educational attainment and gender equality efforts. According to UN Women, Bangladesh has made significant strides in gender equality. Additionally, the country's efforts consistently encouraging women in leadership and participation through several initiatives. UN Women's 2024 Gender Equality Brief highlights that women in Bangladesh are increasingly taking on leadership roles and participating in community and social activities.

 

Causes of backwardness of female students in higher education in Bangladesh

Girls are being married at their early age and go to their husband’s family. Hence, parents in Bangladesh think that spending money for educating their daughters is a waste and bringing up their son is an investment as sons will look after them at their old age. This mindset of the parents discourages girls education compared to boy’s education. 

 

 

 

Though child marriage is restricted in Bangladesh but depending on the family status, availability of groom for a girl, choice of parents, etc, child marriage is happened throughout the country. There are reports on rising child marriage rate in the recent years in Bangladesh. 41.6 % and 8.2% of young women were married when they were under 18 and 15 years old, respectively (BBS, 2023). After marriage, a girl usually stops her study and involves in full time work her in-law’s family. Thus female education is interpreted at the early age of girls. 

 

Onset of adolescence resulting into early marriage and have an early childbearing pattern is very common practice in our society (ASMFR). Female students' academic endeavors may be interrupted or come to an end by early marriage and childbearing duties. Girls who are married at their young age, often before finishing secondary school, are usually expected to put taking care of their home before continuing their education. Girls' opportunities to attend school and pursue higher education are further restricted by early marriages, which also result in early pregnancies and childbearing duties. Gender disparities in higher education are reinforced by this cycle, which also results in lower enrollment rates, higher dropout rates, and lower educational attainment among female students.

 

Traditional gender norms and expectations place a higher priority on marriage and household duties than women's education in many societies. Bangladeshi cultural and societal norms discourage female students from pursuing higher education by encouraging early marriage, signifies boys' education, household responsibilities, and posing safety concerns that limit girls freedom of movement. The famine of female role models and financial limitations additionally restrict girls access to higher education. These expectations support gender inequity and lead to female students' academic underachievement.

 

Financial limitations may prevent female students from pursuing higher education, particularly in households where investing in the education of male offspring is valued more highly. In Bangladesh, economic barriers prioritize the education of boys when resources are scarce, which makes female students in higher education less advanced. Many times, low-income families are unable to pay for their daughters' education, books, or transportation. In addition, girls might be expected to work or help with housework, which would cut into their study time. Their academic progress is impeded, and gender inequality is reinforced by the dearth of financial aid and scholarships, which further restricts their educational opportunities.

 

The academic readiness of female students for post-secondary education can be hampered by inadequate access to high-quality primary and secondary education. Bangladesh's poor infrastructure, substandard teachers in periphery level, and lack of access to high-quality education all impede the advancement of female students in post-secondary education. That results, low academic achievement and inadequate preparation for further education. In addition, the lack of facilities that are gender-sensitive and conducive to learning discourages girls from pursuing higher education, which exacerbates educational inequalities and puts them behind in terms of higher education.

 

Female students may be deterred from pursuing higher education by discriminatory practices and attitudes in educational institutions. In Bangladesh, discrimination based on gender prioritizes the education of boys over that of girls, which results in unequal access to opportunities and resources. Stereotypes and societal biases diminish the value of education for girls, which discourages families from supporting their academic endeavors. Due to lower enrollment, higher dropout rates, and decreased motivation, female students experience educational disparities that are perpetuated and further contribute to their educational backwardness in higher education. 

 

 Female students may find it more difficult to attend educational institutions due to limited transportation options and safety concerns, especially in remote or dangerous areas. Concerns about harassment and violence prevent female students in Bangladesh from traveling to and attending higher education institutions, which impedes their ability to pursue higher education. Their access to high-quality education and chances for academic advancement are diminished by this restriction. As a result, families may decide to keep girls at home, which raises dropout rates and causes female students to lag behind their peers in terms of education.

 

A dearth of female role models in academia and the workforce may restrict the goals and drive of female students. Girls may find it difficult to see themselves pursuing higher education or reaching professional goals in the absence of visible role models who are successful women in academia and the workforce. Female students become less motivated and self-assured in the lack of role models, which may result in lower enrolment and higher dropout rates. In order to encourage and empower girls to follow their academic goals and overcome obstacles in higher education, this issue must be addressed.

 

A lack of childcare facilities, flexible scheduling, and support services are just a few examples of policies and practices that may not be in the best interests of female students in educational institutions. Inadequate infrastructure, such as the absence of facilities that are gender-segregated and secure transportation, is one type of institutional barrier that can deter girls from attending colleges or universities that are far from their homes. Furthermore, the absence of gender-sensitive policies and support services in educational institutions can result in the marginalization of female students. Institutional biases and discriminatory practices may also prevent girls from pursuing academic advancement opportunities and a high-quality education. It is imperative to tackle these institutional obstacles in order to establish a welcoming and encouraging atmosphere that encourages female students in Bangladesh to pursue higher education.

 

Girls who experience socialization processes that undermine their ambition and sense of self-worth may experience a decline in their academic performance and goals. Socialization processes frequently perpetuate traditional gender norms and expectations, which place a higher priority on girls' academic aspirations and prioritize domestic responsibilities. Female students may experience a decline in confidence as a result, which may impact their perception of their capacity for both academic and professional success.

 

The academic advancement of female students may be hindered by restricted access to educational materials and technological resources. Particularly in rural areas, the accessibility and availability of technology, such as computers, internet connectivity, and digital learning resources, are frequently restricted. Female students are disproportionately impacted by this digital divide, which restricts their access to learning resources and online learning opportunities that could improve their academic achievement. Additionally, the quality of education that female students can receive is hampered by inadequate resources in educational institutions, such as out-of-date textbooks, a lack of classrooms, and a shortage of teaching staff. 

 

Initiatives taken by the government to accelerate female education: 

Bangladesh government have taken many initiatives and policies to establish gender equality to ensure education for both boys and girls. It is evident in constitution, international and national level policies, development plans of Bangladesh. Consequently, the main goal of allocating resources for women's education was to benefit future generations rather than to uplift the quality of their life. The majors initiatives of Bangladesh government are as follows: 

 

Initiatives taken by the government of Bangladesh at a glance

Box: Initiatives taken by the government of Bangladesh

Source: Author’s compilation

Recommendations

Higher studies transform women’s sociocultural, economic, political and decision-making roles in many ways but still there are some issues that need to be addressed. Therefore, the following policy recommendations are inevitable to consider:

• Relevant policies regarding tertiary education for female students should be revised as required.
• Effective policy implementation must be ensured to eliminate gender inequality. 
• Stipend and scholarship should be introducing in tertiary level by the concern institutions to facilitate female student’s higher education.
• Traditional sociocultural attitudes towards women should be dispelled. 
• Sufficient funds should be allocated for female students to conduct their various research projects and higher studies.
• Curriculum (especially in STEM education) should be reformed to enrich women with more potential to the globalized arena.
• Opportunities should be offered equally in urban and rural areas to accelerate women’s empowerment.
• Campaigning in radio, television, internet, and social media to enhance social awareness about women’s rights. 

 

Conclusion:

Higher education makes people significantly solicitous about their rights and responsibilities. In most cases it seems that the background of female students is not as desired to become empowered. Their inadequate financial condition, early marriage and motherhood, urban-rural inequality in education sector, gender parity, stereotypes and social taboos, unsafe mobility, lack of gender role model and advocacy in upper policy levels are hindering women participation in education sector. Nevertheless, overcoming all these barriers, women are being educated with higher studies and contributing in decision making in their families and society with stronger confidence. Over the past few decades, the participation of women in higher education is increasing consistently to lessen the impediments to women’s development. Besides, the government of Bangladesh has formulated different legislative rules, adopted international laws and conventions to achieve gender parity through reforming education plans, policies and programs. This study will facilitate policy makers and stakeholders to mitigate the existing obstacles of women’s higher education addressing the above recommendations. It also opens a new avenue for the future researcher to discover the means of enabling women to meet the challenges of fourth industrial revolution (4IR). An equitable and sustainable society might be established by acknowledging achievement of women in tertiary education.

 

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